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Author has developed a correlation to predict condensation heat transfer coefficients for refrigerant condensation in an automotive parallel flow condenser. This is a first correlation in the open literature for HFO-1234yf to predict heat transfer coefficients for an automotive condenser. The system refrigerant mass flowrate was varied from 180 to 475 kg/hr; inlet refrigerant qualities from 1 to exit qualities of 0. The tests were conducted at an average condenser saturation temperature of 50°C and the oil circulation ratio was maintained at 3%.

Carbon dioxide exhaled by occupants remains within the cabin during operation of HVAC unit in recirculation mode. The CO2 inhaled by the occupants goes into their blood stream that negatively affects occupant’s health. ASHRAE Standard 62 specifies safe levels of carbon dioxide in conditioned space for humans. The CO2 concentration limit per ASHRAE is 700 ppm over ambient conditions on a continuous basis. In a recent investigation the author had developed a model to predict cabin carbon dioxide concentrations for recirculation mode as a function of time, number of occupants, vehicle speed, body leakage characteristics, occupant lung capacities and concentrations of the carbon dioxide coming out from occupant’s mouth, blower position and vehicle age. This developed model has been modified to simulate cabin airflows from 100% recirculation mode to 100% outside air mode, i.e., for any percentage of partial recirculation.

In recent years, start-stop systems have been implemented by many OEMs for improvement of fuel economy. When the engine stops, the occupant comfort typically deteriorates. Hence, the climate and fuel economy engineers are struggling to combine the passenger comfort and fuel economy. Especially in a vehicle cabin where the thermal environment becomes unsteady and highly non-uniform due to a start-stop. It is difficult to adapt any comfort evaluation index that have already been well established for a stationary/uniform space in building type environment in comparison to a vehicle cabin interior. The existing standard of ISO-14505-2 does not consider this for vehicle cabin interior condition. Hence, the authors have developed the occupant’s comfort prediction method under highly non-uniform condition and unsteady conditions and have established a new methodology [1].

Author has developed a correlation to predict flow boiling heat transfer coefficients for refrigerant evaporating in an automotive evaporator. This is a first correlation in the open literature for HFO-1234yf to predict heat transfer coefficients for automotive evaporator. The refrigerant mass flux was varied from 500 to 1200 kg/m2.s; heat flux was varied from 2 to 6.2 kW/m2; inlet refrigerant qualities from 0 to 40% and exit qualities of about 95%. The tests were conduct at 4.4 °C and the oil circulation ratio was maintained at 3%. Experimental data has been used with MINITAB software, Version 16.1.0 to develop this correlation. Multivariate nonlinear regression analysis has been done to develop this correlation. Experimental data along with refrigerant properties, hydraulic diameter that affects Reynolds number, Prandtl number and other appropriate variables have been used to develop this correlation. Details of the newly developed correlation have been presented in the paper.

Recently the author (Mathur, 2017) had presented a model to predict cabin carbon dioxide concentrations as a function of time, number of occupants, vehicle speed, body leakage characteristics, occupant lung capacities and concentrations of the carbon dioxide coming out from occupant’s mouth, blower position and vehicle age. The developed model was validated by the author for mid-sized vehicles (vehicles from D-segment). The simulated data was within ±11.5% of the experimental data. In this paper the author has used the developed model to predict cabin CO2 concentrations for vehicles from B, C & D segments. Or in other words, the effect of the cabin volume will be investigated on the rate of build-up of cabin CO2 concentrations. Experimental tests were conducted on these vehicles and are compared to the simulated data. Detailed results have been presented in the paper.

Water drainage characteristics are dependent on the design of the evaporator: specifically the design of the fins and plates along with hydrophilic coating. A part of the hydrophilic coating washes off with the moisture that condenses over the evaporator core from the air-stream. Hence, water drainage characteristics of an evaporator changes with the vehicle mileage or the age of the vehicle. Since a part of the hydrophilic coating washes away, more water is retained within the evaporator at this condition. Hence, the effectiveness of the evaporator drainage deteriorates with the age of the vehicles. At this condition, the contact angle measured at the plate increases. Author has conducted an experimental study to measure the effectiveness of hydrophilic coating from evaporators taken out from arid (9 cores) and humid areas (16 cores) as a function of vehicle mileage or vehicle age. Contact angles and water retention were measured for a number of evaporators from different OEMs.

The EPA has issued regulations in the Final Rulemaking for 2017-2025 Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards (420r12901-3). This document provides credits against the fuel economy regulations for various Air Conditioning technologies. One of these credits is associated with increased use of recirculation air mode, when the ambient is over 24°C (75°F.). The authors want to communicate the experiences in their careers that highlighted issues with air quality in the interior of the vehicle cabin. Cabin contamination sources may result in safety and health issues for both younger and older drivers. Alertness concerns may hinder their ability to operate a vehicle safely.

The author has developed a model that can be used to predict build-up of cabin carbon dioxide levels for automobiles based on many variables. There are a number of parameters including number of occupants that dictates generation of CO2 within the control volume, cabin leakage (infiltration or exfiltration) characteristics, cabin volume, blower position or airflow rate; vehicle age, etc. Details of the analysis is presented in the paper. Finally, the developed model has been validated with experimental data. The simulated data follows the same trend and matches fairly well with the experimental data.

Water drainage characteristics of an evaporator changes with the age of the vehicle. This is due to the fact that with time, a part of the hydrophilic coating washes off with the moisture that condenses over the evaporator core from the air-stream. Hence, the effectiveness of the evaporator for water drainage deteriorates with the age of the vehicle. At this condition more water is retained in the evaporator as the contact angle increases. Author has conducted experiments with evaporators from multiple vehicles from different OEMs. These evaporators were analyzed to determine the effectiveness of the hydrophilic coating as a function of time or vehicle age. This is the first paper in the open literature that deals with the vehicle mileage or vehicle age with the evaporator plate contact angle and surface coating of an evaporator.

Field tests were conducted on a late full sized sedan with the HVAC unit operating in both Recirculation and OSA modes to monitor build-up of the CO2 concentration inside the cabin and its influence on occupant’s fatigue and alertness. These tests were conducted during 2015 summer on interstate highways with test durations ranging from 4 to 7 hours. During the above tests, fatigue or tiredness of the occupants (including CO2 levels) was monitored and recorded at 30 min intervals. Based on this investigation it is determined that the measured cabin concentration levels reaches ASHRAE (Standard 62-1999) specified magnitudes (greater than 700 ppm over ambient levels) with three occupants in the vehicle. Further, the occupants did show fatigue when the HVAC unit was operated in recirculation mode in excess of 5 hours. Further details have been presented in the paper.

In last 10 years or so, a number of OEMs are designing vehicles with start-stop function to save energy and to reduce pollution. For these systems, the situations in which air-conditioning systems are used have been changing with a significant increase in adoption of idle-time reduction systems (no idling-system). Blower fan remains operating at idle condition while compressor stops in most cases for these systems. In this case, the air temperature at the vent outlets increases. The increase in the air temperature under range of thermal boundary conditions around the evaporator causes a concern of odor to occur. This paper describes and explains experimental studies on changes in heat and humidity at the air outlets according to the switching operation of compressor and root cause analyses of odor coming from air-conditioning system for vehicles with start-stop function.

Experimental studies have been conducted to determine the energy stored in vehicle's Cockpit Module (CPM) at cold soaking conditions for a MY2012 production vehicle. Detailed analysis has been done in this paper to show the influence of energy stored in various components (e.g., Instrument panel, HVAC system, heat exchanger, wire harness, etc.) contained within the CPM unit. Experiments conducted show that the instrument panel stores the maximum amount of energy at a given temperature.

Experimental studies have been conducted to determine the energy stored in vehicle's Cockpit Module (CPM) at high ambient and at high solar heat loads for a MY2012 production vehicle. Detailed analysis has been done in this paper to show the influence of energy stored in various components (e.g., Instrument panel, HVAC system, heat exchanger, wire harness, etc.) contained within the CPM unit. Experiments were conducted to show the amount of energy stored at high ambient and solar conditions.

Experimental tests were conducted on a parallel flow condenser with HFO-1234yf as the working fluid on an AC system bench to determine average and local heat transfer coefficients during condensation of HFO-1234yf for mass flow rates that are typically encountered from idle to highway speeds (800 to 3000 rpms). A condenser from MY 2008 medium-sized sedan was used for this investigation. All original OEM parts were used with the alternate refrigerant. Same TXV set-point was used with HFO-1234yf. The magnitude of the measured heat transfer coefficient for condensation was found to be 8~12% lower in comparison to HFC-134a. The magnitudes of the pressure drop during condensation were of the same magnitude as HFC-134a system. The information from this investigation can be used to in the design of condensers for mobile air conditioning systems with HFO-1234yf as the working fluid.

Tests were conducted with a laminate evaporator for an automotive application. The tests were conducted with HFO-1234yf as the working fluid on an AC system bench. A laminate evaporator from MY 2008 medium-sized sedan was used for this investigation. Flow boiling heat transfer coefficients were experimentally determined for HFO-1234yf for this laminate evaporator. Heat transfer coefficients have also been computed from standard correlations available from the open literature. The experimentally obtained heat transfer coefficients are within ±20% of the simulated data based on standard correlation (Kandlikar, 1990). Pressure gradients for these two fluids calculated from Lockhart and Martinelli (1949) correlation shows that the pressure gradients for HFO-1234yf are lower by 15%. Detailed results have been presented in this paper.

To improve fuel consumption, hybrid system, turbo-charged engine, and clean diesel engine vehicles have been developed. These new systems require additional heat exchangers which reduces air flow rate within the heat exchangers of an engine cooling module. Consequently, power of cooling fan is increased. CalsonicKansei (CK) has developed a new cooling module “SLIM” (Single Layer Integrated cooling Module). This consists of a current condenser which is air-cooled and a new water-cooled condenser. This water cooled condenser is specifically designed to bring superheated refrigerant vapor to saturated conditions. The water-cooled condenser is located inside of the sub-radiator tank. The operation of the sub-radiator is to provide cooling to charge air cooler (CAC) and to water-cooled condenser. The switch of the operation is done automatically without any valve and any actuator.

Tests were conducted with a laminate evaporator for an automotive application. The tests were conducted with HFO-1234yf as the working fluid on an AC system bench. A laminate evaporator from MY 2008 medium sized sedan was used for this investigation. Tests were first conducted with R-134a and were then repeated by maintaining each test condition by changing the working fluid from R-134a to HFO-1234yf. Charge determination tests were also conducted with the new refrigerant. The refrigerant was used as “drop-in” refrigerant in the existing system. All original OEM parts were used with the alternate refrigerant. Same TXV set-point and lubricant type and quantity was used with HFO-1234yf. The new refrigerant has advantages due to the refrigerant thermodynamic properties that helps reduce the pressure ratio. Detailed test results have been presented in this paper.

An experimental investigation has been carried out to quantify the performance enhancements with a suction line heat exchanger (SLHX) in an AC system with HFO-1234yf as the working fluid. An off-the-shelf double pipe cross fluted SLHX is used for this investigation. System level bench tests are conducted with an AC system from a 2009 MY mid-sized sedan. The test results shows that the AC system performance with HFO-1234yf can be improve up to 8~9% in comparison to a baseline system without a SLHX.

Experimental tests were conducted on a parallel flow condenser with HFO-1234yf as the working fluid on an AC system bench. This refrigerant is being considered as an alternative refrigerant for mobile air conditioning systems (MACS) to address the global warming concerns. A condenser from MY 2008 medium sized sedan was used for this investigation. Tests were first conducted with R-134a and were then repeated by maintaining each test condition by changing the working fluid from R-134a to HFO-1234yf. The refrigerant was used as “drop-in” refrigerant in the existing system. All original OEM parts were used with the alternate refrigerant. Same TXV set-point was used with HFO-1234yf. Detailed test results have been presented in this paper.

Experimental investigations have been carried out to determine the AC system performance with HFO-1234yf as the working fluid. System level bench tests have been conducted with an AC system from a 2008 MY mid-sized sedan. The cabin interior condition is held constant at 20°C and 50% RH and evaporator airflow rate is varied from 5 to 9 m₃/min (83 to 150 lps). The dry bulb temperature for the engine compartment is varied from 25 to 45°C. The compressor speed is varied from 800 to 3000 rpm and the air velocity over the condenser is varied from 2 to 10 m/s (546 to 2730 lps). Detailed test results have been presented in the paper.