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Many vehicle and engine test studies have shown that the fuel efficiency of automobiles can be improved by reducing friction between moving parts. Typically, organic friction modifiers such as glycerol monooleate (GMO) or metal containing friction modifiers such as molybdenum dithiocarbamate (MoDTC) have been added to engine oils to reduce boundary friction and improve fuel efficiency. These traditional friction modifiers act by forming either a self-assembled organic film (in the case of GMO) or a Mo-disulfide chemical film (in the case of MoDTC). More recently, the ability of inorganic tungsten disulfide (WS2) nanoparticles to reduce boundary friction has been described. Martin has proposed that WS2 nanoparticles are transported into a contact zone where they are compressed and peel open like an onion to form a film. In this study, oil-soluble inorganic nanoparticles containing cerium (Ce) and zinc (Zn) have been synthesized.

This paper presents the findings of some fundamental characterisation of the deposits that form on the injectors of an air-assisted DISI automotive engine, including the effect of these deposits on engine performance when operated in different combustion modes, with varying fuel composition and additive content. A root cause analysis was undertaken, including an assessment of injector temperature and deposit chemistry. Fuels from a matrix designed around the European year 2000 gasoline specifications for T90, olefin and aromatic levels were used to study the effect of fuel composition on deposit formation. Two commercial gasoline detergent additives, of different chemistries, were used to investigate the impact on deposit formation. The results of the fuels study and deposit analysis are consistent with published theories concerning fuel composition impact on combustion chamber deposit (CCD).

Additive control of DIG injector coking was investigated on two dynamometer-operated engines and validated in a vehicle. The first engine was a Nissan research “mule” engine designed to severely coke the injectors so that additive effect could be more easily discriminated. Initial additive screening and optimization was carried out in this engine and a few chosen candidates of the Mannich chemistry-type were further optimized in the second engine, and in a vehicle. The second engine, which was also dynamometer operated, was an advanced wall-guided design capable of both homogeneous and stratified operation. On this engine we were able to optimize the Mannich additive “Man C-2” separately in two different carrier systems to show a carrier effect, and by manipulating the purity of the base detergent Man C-2 to show a detergent activity modulation by trace co-products.

Stringent regulations on fuel economy have driven major innovative changes in the internal combustion engine design. (E.g. CAFE fuel economy standards of 54.5 mpg by 2025 in the U.S) Vehicle manufacturers have implemented engine infrastructure changes such as downsizing, direct injection, higher compression ratios and turbo-charging/super-charging to achieve higher engine efficiencies. Fuel properties therefore, have to align with these engine changes in order to fully exploit the possible benefits. Fuel octane number is a key metric that enables high fuel efficiency in an engine. Greater resistance to auto-ignition (knock) of the fuel/air mixture allows engines to be operated at a higher compression ratio for a given quantity of intake charge without severely retarding the spark timing resulting in a greater torque per mass of fuel burnt. This attribute makes a high octane fuel a favorable hydrocarbon choice for modern high efficiency engines that aim for higher fuel economy.

Manganese oxide deposits which are exclusively in the form of Mn3O4, a benign form of manganese, are introduced in the exhaust stream from use of MMT, an octane-enhancing, emission-reducing fuel additive. The physical and chemical effect of these deposits on catalytic converters has generated some controversy in the literature. In this paper, we will focus on the effects that manganese oxide deposits have on catalytic converters. The physical effect of these deposits on the morphology of the converters was investigated by B.E.T surface area measurements, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and x-ray fluorescence (XRF). The chemical effect was investigated with tests using both slave-engine dynamometers and a pulse-flame combustor to probe for differences in catalyst performance. Data from an extensive vehicle fleet which was tested according to a program designed in consultation with the EPA and the automobile industry will be presented.

The key feature of diesel fuel ignition quality is ignition delay time. In the American Society for Testing and Materials standard test for cetane number measurement, (ASTM D 613) the ignition delay time is held constant while the compression ratio is varied until ignition occurs at the set time. On the other hand, commercial diesel engines have set compression ratios and therefore, the ignition delay time varies with the cetane number of the fuel. The shorter this delay time, the wider the time window over which the combustion processes are spread. This leads to a more controlled heat release rate and pressure rise, resulting in prevention of diesel knock and in lowering of emissions. High cetane fuels exhibit short ignition delay times. The Constant Volume Combustion Apparatus (CVCA) precisely measures the ignition delay time of fuels. This study investigates the CVCA as a supplementary tool for characterization of diesel fuel ignition quality under a variety of conditions.

The gas-phase chemical kinetics of diesel fuel ignition, without and with ignition-enhancing additives, have been studied. A kinetics chain mechanism was developed to analytically describe the ignition processes. The mechanism treats a surrogate diesel fuel mixture consisting of representative alkane, aromatic and naphthenic components. Wind tunnel experiments were conducted wherein premixed, prevaporized diesel fuel-air flames were stabilized in a model combustor for times measured in minutes, thereby permitting extensive emissions measurements to be made. Ignition delay times predicted by the analytical model were in good agreement with those deduced experimentally.

The time of, and location where ignition first occurs in a diesel fuel spray were investigated in a rapid compression machine (RCM) using the two–dimensional techniques of silicone oil particle scattering imaging (SSI), and the planar laser induced fluorescence (LIF) of formaldehyde. Formaldehyde has been hypothesized to be one of the stable intermediate species marking the start of oxidation reactions in a transient spray under compression ignition conditions. In this study, the LIF images of the formaldehyde formed in a diesel fuel spray during ignition process have been successfully obtained for the first time by exciting formaldehyde with the 3rd harmonic of the Nd:YAG laser. SSI images of the vaporizing spray, and the LIF images of formaldehyde were obtained together with the corresponding time record of combustion chamber pressures at initial ambient temperatures ranging from 580 K to 790 K.

We report on a comprehensive fuel additive study where two different detergent chemistry types, Mannichs and polyetheramines, are ranked with regard to injector deposit control in a research direct-injected gasoline (DIG) engine. The engine used was a conventional dual-sparkplug, 2.2-liter Nissan engine modified for direct injection using one of the sparkplug holes. The engine was run under 20% rich conditions to accelerate injector deposit formation. The two detergent chemistry types are shown to perform quite differently with the Mannichs showing superior performance. The Mannich detergent chemistries can reduce the DIG injector flow loss after using Howell EEE fuel from a high of 11.23% to a low of 3.14% whereas the best polyetheramine detergent chemistry tested reduced it to 8.17%. One of the Mannichs was further tested in a year 2000 specification gasoline with 150 ppm sulfur, and a North American type gasoline with 420 ppm sulfur.

The effects of fuel composition and engine operating parameters on high-pressure, direct injection gasoline (DIG) injector plugging and deposit formation have been studied. The engine used was a conventional dual-sparkplug, 2.2-liter Nissan engine modified for direct injection using one of the spark plug holes. The engine was run under 20% rich conditions to accelerate deposit formation. A ten-fuel test matrix was designed around T90, sulfur level, and olefin levels indicated in the European gasoline specifications for year 2000. The gasolines, containing no detergents, were formulated using refinery stream blends to match the specified targets. Injector flow loss was monitored by fuel flow to the engine and monitoring oxygen sensors on each of the four cylinders. The impact of fuel composition on deposit formation and injector plugging is discussed. Injector flow loss was strongly influenced by injector tip temperature.