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Six human volunteer subjects were used to analyze the effects of normal braking compared to forceful braking in non-impact stationary, non-impact dynamic, and vehicle-to-vehicle impact conditions. For the non-impact conditions, each volunteer performed normal and hard braking maneuvers with the vehicle stationary and in motion. Vehicle dynamics and occupant kinematics were measured during impacts and brake pedal force and displacement were measured in all conditions using a non-ABS equipped vehicle. A series of twelve low speed rear-end crash tests were conducted with the same six human volunteers. Each volunteer was subjected to two rear-end impacts with an impact speed of approximately 12 km/h. In the first test, each volunteer was asked to apply the brake as though they were stopped at a stop light, and they were unaware at the time of impact.