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In the automotive sector, few changes are more disruptive than moving powertrains away from the century-long tradition of liquid petroleum fueling. Powertrain development is one of the largest areas of long-term investments in the automotive sector, requiring research, development and testing years before production and significant commitments of capital by the OEM and suppliers to establish and sustain complex vertical production systems. Once in series production, incremental improvements (”kaizen”) will be expected to keep the powertrain current through a decade or more of changing conditions in consumer needs, regulatory requirements, retail dealer sales & service, and supporting infrastructure. Powertrain systems are particularly dependent on externalities outside of the automaker and direct supply chain.